Cognition and Perception

Posted: January 4th, 2023

Summaries  

Student’s Name

Institutional Affiliation

Summaries

Cognition and Perception

Summary

• The aging process comes with reduction in cognition and perception capabilities.
• Cognition is influenced by structural and functional effects of their social networks. Living alone and low satisfaction aggravate cognition and perception, while emotional support is linked to higher cognitive performance.
• Social networks shrink from the age of 30 through a pruning process. Network size varies across cultures, income levels and education achievements. Some value children and others, spousal networks.
• Aging changes in perspectives about wellbeing and emotional meaningfulness of experiences, with their importance increasing with age. Preserving important social partners and discarding peripheral social links reduce distress and anger.

General Reaction

I felt that the structural and functional social networks were overemphased as influencers of cognition and perception during the aging process. Although the quantity of social networks reduced with increasing age, their quality was critical for the maintenance of cognitive and perception capabilities as an individual ages. Notably, as one ages, the desire to maintain high levels of wellbeing and the importance of emotionally meaningful experiences increases (Thomas, Liu, & Umberson, 2017).   

Specific Point of Interest

Younger people and not older adults exhibit a negativity bias towards the recollection of life events. The explanation of this phenomenon was interesting because it revealed that although young adults absorbed more information, this enhanced functionality was supported by negative stimuli and the inability to preserve emotional balance. The absence of the negativity bias was critical in the maintenance of focused perceptions and avoidance of stress by focusing on the positive memories and aspects of life that is exhibited by aging people. Indeed, I am now cognizant that my memories of adverse events linger longer and are easier to recollect in finer detail than many of the good ones. This may have been prompted by to avoid experiencing similar occurrences in future.     

Suggestions for Future Research

Future studies should delve into the cultural differences in cognition and perception during the aging process. A probable research question would be ‘how does cognition and perception vary across the different cultures in Canada during the aging process?’ Participants would be drawn from first nations, native Canadian, Black Canadians, European Canadians, and Canadians of Asian origin. A qualitative study using a phenomenological study design can help unearth the variances across cultures when the data is analyzed using correlational statistics.

The Aging Brain

Summary

• Aging is a natural progression that begins at birth and progresses to senescence. The cognitive domains that are impaired by aging include language, memory, executive function, attention, and processing speed.
• The theories explaining cognitive aging include the sensor function theory, inhibitory decline theory, cognitive resource theory, and processing speed theory.
• Acuity in all senses declines with age. This includes the senses of sight, balance, smell, taste, touch and hearing.
• The brain changes structurally with age. Grey matter volume in the lateral prefrontal cortex, primary visual cortex and the hippocampus reduces because of reduced synaptic densities, along an anterior-posterior progression.
• Staying intellectually engaged, maintaining cardiovascular activity, minimizing chronic stressors, and maintaining a brain-healthy diet preserves the functionality of the brain and slows down the reduction in volume.

General Reaction

Brain science is a complex subject that is difficult to exhaust and is still developing. Different parts of the brain control different body functionalities and cognitive processes, which are affected differently by aging based on the position in the brain. As such, different areas change in volume and density, which progresses from the anterior part of the brain to its posterior (Thomas, Liu, & Umberson, 2017). Nurturing and maintaining a healthy brain forestalls its deterioration by maintaining synaptic connections.

Specific Point of Interest

Brain volume is calibrated from surface area and density to help determine its structural changes. Cortical thickness is usually not considered as part of brain volume although it has been shown to thin in different areas of the brain without any predictable progression. Magnetic resonance imaging is the main source of information about the structure of the brain with the functional MRI still undergoing development. Although it may be difficult to determine the condition of my brain volume without MRI tests, I am more observant of such information when I review the health reports of my aging parents and relatives.

Suggestions for Future Research

Research is needed to identify how the brain structure changes across different people in different cultures and lifestyles that exhibit different aging progressions. A research question in how the brain structure of elderly Canadians varies across different ethnicities and races. The participants are individuals aged 60-70 years drawn from the different ethnicities in Canada. A quantitative studythat conducts cranial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)with the data being retrieved from imaging reports of elderly Canadians held in Canadian hospitals would help answer this question. A comparative study design that compares the Brain Atrophy and Lesion Index (BALI) cross participants of different ethnicities with the indices being subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), student t-tests and Spearman correlation statistical tests to reveal the differences and their effect sizes.

Dementia

Summary

• Dementia is an abnormal cognitive impairment accompanying the ageing process, anc comes with loss of intellectual capabilities, which interfere with social functioning. Dementia is categorized as cortical and subcortical.
• Alzheimer’s disease is the most common manifestation of dementia. Some people present mixed dementia. The global prevalence of dementia was 44 million, with 747,000 of them being Canadians.
• Dementia is diagnosed using clinical dementia rating (CDR), Montreal cognitive assessment (MoCA) and mini mental state examination (MMSE), by assessing its presence and severity.
• Risk factors include genetic predisposition, high cholesterol levels, diabetes, hypertension, atherosclerosis, history of stroke, smoking, and age.
• About 20 % of dementia cases are reversible, treatable or preventable. In addition, the degenerative neurological diseases associates with dementia can be partially managed.

General Reaction

Although the content explained the manifestation and cause of dementia, preventative measures were not provided. Cognitive rehabilitation and management of cardiovascular risk factors were mentioned as possible dementia management approaches, with medications not providing effective alternatives. However, the different manifestations of demential are provided. Notably, dementia manifests as vascular dementia, Lewy body dementia, frontotemporal disorders, Parkinson’s disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease Huntington’s disease, Korsakoff’s syndrome, and Alzheimer’s disease. Traumatic brain injuries, extended use of alcohol and drugs, hydrocephalus, vascular disorders, and degenerative neurological diseases can cause dementia. Diagnostic tests assess the presence and severity of dementia and use a score to rate the level of impairment. For instance, MoCA and MMSE assessments are scored out of 30, while CDR rates the symptoms between 0 and 3 depending of severity. The reversible causes include brain tumors, blood clots, hydrocephalus, metabolic disorders, thyroid hormone levels, hypoglycemia, and alcohol and drug abuse.

Specific Point of Interest

The knowledge that dementia was not part of the normal aging process was new and revealing. Many of the causes were related to lifestyle choices, such as extended drug abuse, alcoholism, and cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, changes in lifestyle can forestall the occurrence of the condition. With this knowledge, I am more conscious of my lifestyle choices knowing that they would have an implication on the occurrence of dementia later in life.

Suggestions for Future Research

An investigation of the environmental factors in Canada that influence dementia among the elderly can help improve caregiving. The study should answer the question which environment factors influence the onset and progression of dementia among Canadians aged 70 years and above. A qualitative study using self-administered and caregiver-filled questionnaires, and interviews would help reveal these factors. Participants would be drawn from urban and rural settings with the data obtained would be subjected to thematic analysis to unearth the overarching themes related to the prominent environmental factors.

Wisdom

Summary

• Wisdom is a complex concept. Controversy persists whether wisdom is associated with aging with studies contradicting the influence of age.
• Wisdom can be considered as a competence or the quality of advice and guidance given to others.
• Implicit and explicit theories explain wisdom. Implicit theories address the everyday perceptions by lay people using common-sense approaches, while explicit theories consider the behavioral manifestations of wisdom provided by experts.
• Wisdom can be assessed using several assessment scales. Of these, the Berlin Wisdom Paradigm is most commonly used measurement and considers wisdom as a competence.
• Emerging measures of wisdom include Grossmann’s situational measures of wise-reasoning, and the More Wisdom interview.

General Reaction

Wisdom was a cultured concept that dependent on the perceptions of different people. Therefore, there lacked consensus in what wisdom entailed. However, there are qualities about wisdom that cut across cultures, which makes it possible to use the assessment scales with different people. In this respect, the assessment scales commonly used include the self-assessed wisdom scale (SAWS), the wisdom development scale (WDS), and the three-dimensional wisdom scale (3D-WS). Other measures include the Berlin Wisdom Paradigm, the Bremen Wisdom Paradigm, Grossmann’s wise-reasoning approach, and the Adult Self-Transcendence Inventory (Glück, 2018).  Altogether, common conceptualizations of wisdom are associated with having a sense of humour, deep spirituality, openness, high tolerance, enhanced emotional homeostasis, acknowledgment of uncertainty, high level of self-understanding, having prosocial values, and a profound knowledge of life (Bangen, Meeks, & Jeste, 2013).

Specific Point of Interest

I was captured by the measurement of wisdom. Several tools for measuring wisdom exist, which I found surprising. Although the Berlin Wisdom Paradigm dominated the wisdom measurement approaches, several other scales existed, while new ones were being developed. Many of these tests can be self-administered and I can use them on my aging parents as part of monitoring their general health wellbeing.

Suggestions for Future Research

More standardized measurement approaches for assessing wisdom need to be developed, considering the variability of the current tools. Therefore, a recommended research question would be what is the variation of the results regarding wisdom using Berlin Wisdom Paradigm, the Bremen Wisdom Paradigm, Grossmann’s wise-reasoning approach, and the Adult Self-Transcendence Inventory among 70 year-old Canadians? A qualitative study administering the four different wisdom tests, whose scores are compared using Analysis of Variance and correlation tests would reveals the differences.

Successful Aging

Summary

• Successful aging has gained importance due to increased longevity of people. It is about active and meaningful aging, with aging individuals focusing and acting on what they find important.
• Individual’s social and emotional attributes determine the quality of aging. Emotional and social functioning changes minimally. Some individuals are aggrieved more than others, influencing the aging process and outcomes quality
• Aging healthily is influenced by the quality of relations with spouse, children, siblings, and grandchildren.
• Aging successfully is enhanced by the absence of mental disorders and their physical manifestations and problematic aging was promoted by stressors.
• Continued functioning of the stress mechanisms of the body improves the quality of aging. Cortisol level imbalance degrades the emotional wellbeing of the elderly people by promoting neuroticism.

General Reaction

Several aspects of successful aging are provided. For instance, successful aging is considered a composite of several conditions experienced by individuals at different stages in their lives and especially the sunset years. Information about successful aging is therefore scattered across different age-related attributes and dimensions, including the psychological, physical, cognitive, and emotional wellbeing of individuals. In this regard, successful aging is achieved when the body and mind are healthy through positive lifestyle choices (Foster & Walker, 2015). Notably, the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and adrenal glands (HPA axis) plays a critical role in stress psychological and physical response. Well-balanced and regulated adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol facilitate the maintenance of systemic homeostasis, thus forestalling stress and other mental conditions (Charles & Carstensen, 2010).

Specific Point of Interest

Successful aging is difficult to measure because of its diverse manifestations in different individuals. Different people exhibit different abilities as they age, which may influence their capabilities and behavior. However, this knowledge is instrumental in helping me monitor the aging process of my parents and relatives, and at least provide them with some explanation to their aging process. It has also made me appreciate the differences of the aging processes I observe across different people.

Suggestions for Future Research

A study could seek to answer whether culture influences the success of the aging process? A qualitative study using the longitudinal design would unearth any underlying differences. Participants would be Canadians aged 70 years and above, who would be observed for a period 5 years. The data would be analyzed using regression and correlation analysis to compare the cultural factors and their influence on the aging process.

Article Summary

General overview

Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I., Kim, H. J., Shiu, C., Goldsen, J., & Emlet, C. A. (2015). Successful aging among LGBT older adults: Physical and mental health-related quality of life by age group. The Gerontologist, 55(1), 154-168. This article investigated the manner in which the LGBT community experienced successful aging despite the numerous challenges they faced. Specifically, this study examines the quality of life of adult LGBT community members in terms of the relationship between physical and mental aspects and these vary across age groups, using the resilience framework. The hypotheses are i) the levels of mental and physical health related quality of life differ across the age groups of elderly LGBT adults, ii) factors in the resilience framework and the mental and physical health related quality of life are associated significantly, and not affected by age group, and iii) there are interaction effects between age group differences and the mental and physical health related quality of life among elderly LGBT members. With Canada being one of the most progressive nations regarding the LGBT community, understanding how they are impacted by the aging process can improve policy interventions and facilitate successful aging.

Methods

The study used the qualitative approach in which a cross-sectional survey of 2,560 LGBT adults aged 50 years and above were involved. Data collected from the National Health, Aging, and Sexuality study as part of the Caring and Aging with Pride initiative was used. The participants were recruited from 11 sites from different locations in the United States using purposive sampling based on age and self-identification as members of the LGBT community. Questionnaires were administered as hard and soft copies. Outcome variables that included the quality of life (QoL) based on physical and mental health, and explanatory variables relates to background characteristics, social risks, social resources, identity management resources, socioeconomic resources, and health-promoting behaviors were obtained and analyzed.  Descriptive statistics, bivariate analysis, and multivariate linear regression analysis were conducted.   

Results/Findings

The results revealed that the mental and physical quality of life was negatively correlated with chronic conditions and discrimination. However, these aspects of quality of life were positively correlated with the male gender, income levels, employment, not using substances, physical and leisure activities, the size of social network, and social support. Notably, the quality of life related to mental health was positively correlated with positive perceptions about sexual identity but negatively correlated with the disclosure of sexual identity. Discrimination emerged as a significant influence on the differences across different age groups.

Relation to lessons

This study added to the lessons learned about successful aging by providing insights into the factors that influences this aging experience among the LGBT community. Already, physical and mental wellbeing was identified as an influencer of the quality of aging among the regular population presented during class.

General attributes

Strengths

Firstly, the study pioneered investigating the experiences of LGBT people that are aged 80 years and above. Therefore, it expands the existing knowledge about aging success by including a segment of the population that is often overlooked in such studies.

Secondly, the study tested many variables in detail. This provides a comprehensive understanding of the aging experiences of the LGBT members.

Weaknesses

Firstly, the sample size was small and less diverse. It involved a small proportion participants aged 80 and above, while the younger participants are overrepresented. In this respect, the estimates between the explanatory factors and the outcomes for the older participants may be conservative.

Secondly, a nonprobability sampling was used. Nonprobability sampling focuses on the participants who meet the researcher’s criteria. Therefore, the findings from such samples cannot be generalized to the larger population because they contain biases.

Future suggestions

  Longitudinal studies that differentiate the age, period and cohort influences on LGBT aging were recommended to improve understanding on the aging and health trajectories over time. Such as study should employ random sampling rather that focuses on the aging population only. Alternatively, equal proportions of elderly and young participants could be used to avoid sampling biases.

References

Bangen, K. J., Meeks, T. W., & Jeste, D. V. (2013). Defining and assessing wisdom: A review of the literature. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 21(12), 1254-1266. doi.10.1016/j.jagp.2012.11.020.

Charles, S. T., & Carstensen, L. L. (2010). Social and emotional aging. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 383-409. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100448.

Daroff, R. B., & Aminoff, M. J. (2014). Encyclopedia of the neurological sciences. Academic press.

Davidson, P. S.R., Fogel, S., Taler, V. & Winocur, G. (2012). Aging and cognition. In V. Ramachandran (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of behavioural Neuroscience (2nd ed.). Elsevier. 

Foster, L., & Walker, A. (2015). Active and successful aging: A European policy perspective. The Gerontologist, 55(1), 83-90. doi:10.1093/geront/gnu028.

Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I., Kim, H. J., Shiu, C., Goldsen, J., & Emlet, C. A. (2015). Successful aging among LGBT older adults: Physical and mental health-related quality of life by age group. The Gerontologist, 55(1), 154-168. doi:10.1093/geront/gnu081.

Glück, J. (2018). Measuring wisdom: Existing approaches, continuing challenges, and new developments. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 73(8), 1393-1403. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbx140.

Thomas, P. A., Liu, H., & Umberson, D. (2017). Family relationships and well-being. Innovation in Aging, 1(3), 1-11. doi:10.1093/geroni/igx025.