Anthropology: Uniqueness of the Modern Homo sapiens

Posted: January 4th, 2023

Anthropology: Uniqueness of the Modern Homo sapiens

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Anthropology: Uniqueness of the Modern Homo sapiens

The identification of the underlying causes of human individuality represents one of the most interesting and philosophically reflective issues of all scientific studies. Despite the fact that scientists are cognizant of the reality that humans share identical biological heritage as all the other organisms in the universe, the reliance of the modern Homo sapiens on both culture and cooperation has contributed to what is referred to as an outstanding evolutionary anomaly (Hill, Barton, & Hurtado, 2009). The unique features between humans and other apes and hominins, which is evident from the process of evolution, are in their size, height, behaviors, and morphological attributes. When compared to humans, Neanderthals were of smaller built and short in stature. Humans possess larger bodies, have advanced language attributes, and have a considerable distinction in terms of structure and form, particularly in their teeth and skull formation. Another significant difference between the modern Homo sapiens and Neanderthals can be found in their DNA. Archaeological evidence and fossils prove a discernible difference between the modern Homo sapiens and Neanderthal, who were a different species to modern humans. The Neanderthal’s larynx was raised and bigger than that of the modern Homo sapiens. 

There are four distinct examples that can be applied to show the evolutionary uniqueness of the modern Homo sapiens, as compared to the Neanderthal: 1) behavior; 2) genetic variation; 3) morphology; and 4) from human fossils and archaeological proof. It is essential to explore each of these areas to ascertain their relevance in the explanation of Homo sapiens uniqueness. Besides, human evolution was significantly molded by the interbreeding between Neanderthals and Denisovans. The modern Homo sapiens’ ancestors interbred with various hominin species and Neanderthals, with the hybridization events proving to be crucial to the modern human’s evolution and eventual survival (Antón, Potts, & Aiello, 2014). The early frolics are presently visible in the modern Homo sapiens’ DNA, as demonstrated through genetic analysis.

Distinctive Homo sapiens Behavior

The modern Homo sapiens is unique because of his ability to cooperate, coordinate, and apply collective action to solve various social problems, which include colliding aircraft, slave rebellions, vigilante movements, and water management (Lee & Beth, 2012); (Ch.1 – Cooperation, Coordination, and Collective Action). Unlike Neanderthals, eclectic historical sciences derived from empirical observations and intuitions from theoretical sciences demonstrate that Homo sapiens have managed to solve issues collectively. Mancur Olson asserted that unless groups were small or “, there is coercion or some other special device to make individuals act in their common interest, rational, self-interested individuals will not act to achieve their common or group interest” (Lee & Beth, 2012, p. 3). In the event of obstacles within communities, reasonable self-interested individuals can seek ways of overcoming them. For example, as the civil rights movement (CRM) and other mass deployments have demonstrated empirically, efforts to surmount collective action dilemmas are assisted considerably through existing social networks and institutions.

In addition, early archaeological evidence has suggested that the modern Homo sapiens were much more resourceful than Neanderthals and other hominins. For example, Antón, Potts, and Aiello (2014) state that archaeological studies have identified behaviors among early toolmakers that assisted flexible responses to vibrant environments. Moreover, comparative research of energetics, mammalian development, behavior, and ecology has offered novel interpretive models. The chronological sequence of behavioral and morphological innovations in the early Homo is, therefore, more finely addressed using the East African fossil record, which continues to be the epicenter of focus because of a distinct combination of attributes. The start and evolution of the early Homo are associated with the accommodation of unpredictable and new environments over space and time. Specifically, the intensifications in the average brain and body size, as well as the transformation of the dental size, in addition to stone transport and intensified toolmaking, suggest developmental plasticity, dietary expansion, and social investments. Collectively, these behaviors and features enabled positive accommodation of the fluctuating environments.

The unique behaviors that became ostensible with the upper Paleolithic include the superficial improvement of the modern Homo sapiens’ symbolic capacity (Week 13 human origins notes – Modern Homo sapiens); (Lecture Nov. 17). The high symbolic development was probably related to the advancement of the full human language. Primates started to learn the concept of symbols. For example, they learned intricate utterances of words, grammar, and sounds in sentences, as well as a symbol such as the blue triangle representing an apple (kansi). Here, it is important to note that animals such as seals and dolphins are also great at learning. However, Neanderthals did not have advanced knowledge of symbols and language. The reason could lie in the reality that some cultural and behavioral advances of modern Homo sapiens are not distinctly registered in the skeleton. There are possible differences in the growth and development of the body and divergences in soft tissue. Besides, genes play a part in the advancement of language, which differs from chimps, appearing to have undergone more dominant selection. Some of the genes are linked to brain size, with some existent in Neanderthals. The principal aspect that separates human language from that of Neanderthals is its reliance on symbols inserted into grammatical rules (Week 13 Human Origin Notes – Modern Homo sapiens); (Lecture Nov. 19). Modern Homo sapiens adapt through culture, for instance, by creating shelters, memories, rituals, myths, and storytelling, in addition to movement based on season, perhaps as a determination of group versus outsiders. The behavior has also been discernible among animals. For example, the bonobo can kill infants and vulnerable groups living in the vicinity (Richard, Bonobos); (Lecture – Apr. 19, 2019).

However, some aspects do not make modern Homo sapiens unique. For instance, as per the theory of the mind, apes like chimpanzees can understand what others know or are thinking by looking into their eyes. The theory of the mind describes the ability of “knowing what others know,” which is attributable to mental states like knowledge, goals, and intentions to others (de Waal, 2016). Apes can accurately anticipate where humans will search for a concealed item, even if they realize that the particular item is no longer hidden there.

Morphological Distinction

Novel fossils have expanded the identified range of morphological disparity, raising queries regarding the number of early Homo species and the dissimilarity between intra- and interspecific adaptations (Antón, Potts, & Aiello, 2014). East Africa is regarded as one of the cradles of the Homo, with the behavioral and morphological innovations in the species being more resolved in the regions than anywhere else. Beyond East Africa, significant latest findings pertinent to the modern Homo sapiens evolution have been made in Dmanisi, Georgia and Malapa, South Africa, which amplify the manner in which the hominin morphological differences and the scattering of early Homo outside Africa are comprehended.

During the 20^th century, scientists expanded the definition of the Homo to include fossil specimens progressively remote from the modern Homo sapiens in both morphology and time (Antón, Potts, & Aiello, 2014). Despite the existence of multiple models of bipedality in early hominins, it is difficult to utilize efficient locomotion and long legs to separate species and genera because they were already in place prior to the start of the Homo genus. In spite of the categorization of early Homo or the morphological disparity between species, various fossil finds and novel analytical approaches demonstrate that all early Homo is different from Australopithecus in possessing larger average brain and body sizes. The elementary distinctions between Home Erectus and the modern Homo sapiens, as well as other hominins, lie in the crania. Despite significant volumes of data, there is no unison over how to delineate Homo sapiens using the fossil record. The cranial difference between the Pleistocene and the latest human fossils lies in unique derived features known as autapomorphies, which dependably distinguish fossils ascribed to anatomically contemporary Homo sapiens from those accredited to the various taxa under Homo spp.

Genetic Variation

Genetic analysis forms one of the most dependable ways of distinguishing human and hominin species (Week 12 Human Origins Notes – Neanderthals, 2019); (Lecture Nov. 12). Culture describes the beliefs or information stored in institutions, brains, and material goods, which is conveyed socially and inspires behavior (Hill, Barton, & Hurtado, 2009). Given those cultural variants, akin to genes, are information units that influence their own conveyance, their frequencies fluctuate over time, and culture evolves. The implication is that both cultural variants and genetic alleles interact with each other and with the environment to produce witnessed behavioral phenotypes. Genetic evolution shapes social learning mechanisms and also influence the comparative advantages of alternative genes, genotypes, and culture, which co-evolve. The dual inheritance theory is essential for helping to understand the variation in species’ growth and development.

Consequently, studies have indicated that the modern Homo sapiens genetic formation has been rapid and more advanced than that of Neanderthals (Week 12 human origins notes – Neanderthals, 2019); (Lecture Nov. 12). Following a genetic study of a fossil found in Central Asia or Southern Siberia, the finger bone was established to be different from modern Homo sapiens and the Neanderthal species. Neanderthal and modern Homo sapiens have variations in genome types; Africans who remained in Africa developed different genomes, while those who migrated to other parts of the world developed varied genes. However, the modern Homo sapiens genome is very identical to that of Neanderthals, indicating that the sapiens are comparatively new.

Fossils and Archaeological Evidence

Throughout the twentieth century, archaeologists have been recovering fossils and different items that help to define the human evolution process (Week 12 human origins notes – Neanderthals, 2019); (Lecture Nov. 12). The earliest modern Homo sapiens emanate from Africa. There have been discoveries of modern fossils in the Middle East, but have not yielded much in terms of new findings (Take-home exam 3 and final lecture, 2019); (Week 15 – 12/01/14). Modern Homo sapiens have been demonstrated to possess higher body fat than orangutans and chimps, and could still be evolving, most probably, more than the Neanderthals. Typically, women possess around 20 percent more body fat, with chimps having lower than that.

The oldest DNA ever derived to date is aged 700,000 years and was obtained from an ancient horse (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2020). The most ancient hominin whose DNA has been sampled successfully is a Neanderthal aged 400,000 years. However, it is difficult to ascertain the concise genetic formations in ancient Neanderthal fossils because the samples are found in small quantities and are typically damaged and fragmented during excavation and subsequent storage.

Based on the attribute of distinctive language and symbolism, it is evident that modern Homo sapiens is still in the process of evolution (Take-home exam 3 and final lecture, 2019); (Week 15 – 12/01/14). Also, archaeological evidence demonstrates that modern humans started being structured centuries ago. For instance, besides using tools to make their work easier, they also reside in bigger social groups than other previous primates and Neanderthals. The modern Homo sapiens are more dependent on technology, increasingly becoming so with the passage of time, which is in contrast with other primates and hominins. However, modern humans require greater levels of immunology than their fossil ancestors. They encounter more issues with digestion but have prolonged life spells, an aspect that took off in the twentieth century. During the century, humans started living into their 80’s, probably because of positive dietary changes and improvements in medicine.

Modern Human sapiens as “Lone Survivors” and Interbreeding between Denisovans and Neanderthals

The modern Homo sapiens are descendants of the survivors from interbreeding between their ancestors and Neanderthals. The interbreeding between the Denisovans, who were the lone survivors between 40,000 and 50,000 years ago, and the Neanderthals assisted in the evolution process. The Homo Heidelbergenesis became divided into Denisovans, who moved further east, as the Neanderthals moved further west. Fossil evidence demonstrates that the two species interbred (Week 12 human origins notes – Neanderthals, 2019). In a fossil finding of a species, it was discovered that it originated from interbreeding between the two distinctive genes. The fossil had large molars with finger bones and a human toe bone. Beneath the toe-bone was a Neanderthal, and upon genetic study, it was discovered that the fossil gene was different from both the Neanderthal and modern Homo sapiens.

Genomic introgression describes a scenario where DNA is interchanged when two distinct species interbreed. The implication is that various characteristics and traits will be passed from a species to another. Interbreeding between Denisovans and Neanderthals might have helped to safeguard modern humans against ailments such as Malaria (Week 12 human origins notes – Neanderthals, 2019). DNA inherited from the interbreeding might help to deter infectious diseases.  For decades, scientists have asserted that modern Homo sapiens spawned with other hominin species, which included Neanderthals.

In conclusion, modern Homo sapiens uniqueness can be attributed to various attributes and features, which can be dependent on environmental and social aspects. Among the most common factors that help to distinguish modern humans from Neanderthals and other hominins include behavior, genetic transformation, fossils, and archaeological proof, and morphology. Modern humans have more advanced genetic variation from Neanderthals and possess structured lives, including living in larger social groups and developing progressive language and understanding of symbolism. Over the years, interbreeding between species has contributed to the continuation of evolution, resulting in more resilient modern humans.

References

Antón, S. C., Potts, R., & Aiello, L. C. (2014). Evolution of early Homo: An integrated biological perspective. Science Magazine 345(6192), 45-60. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/345/6192/1236828 http://science.sciencemag.org/.

Cronk, L., Leech, B.L. (2012). Ch.1 – Cooperation, coordination, and collective action. In Princeton University, Meeting at Grand Central: Understanding the Social and Evolutionary Roots of Cooperation (pp. 1-14). Princeton University Press.

De Waal, F. B. (2016). Apes know what others believe. Science Magazine 354(6308), 39-42. http://science.sciencemag.org/.

Hill, K., Barton, C. M., & Hurtado, A. M. (2009). The Emergence of human uniqueness: Characters underlying behavioral modernity. Evolutionary Anthropology 18, 187–200. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/evan.20224

Richard, Lecture – Apr. 19. (2019). Self-domestication in bonobos and other wild animals.

Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. (2020). DNA: The language of life. Retrieved from https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/genetics/ancient-dna-and-neanderthals/dna-language-life

Take-home exam 3 and final lecture (2014). What makes modern humans? Week 15 12/01/14.

Week 12 human origins notes – Neanderthals. (2019). Week 12 human origins notes – Neanderthals.

Week 13 Human Origin Notes (2019). Modern Homo sapiens. Class Readings.

Week 13 human origins notes (2019) Modern Homo sapiens. Class Readings.