Abstract of a Monograph

Posted: January 4th, 2023

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Abstract of a Monograph

Brentano, Franz. Aristotle and His World View. California, 1978. This book was originally published in German in 1911, and it is a collection of Aristotle’s thoughts that demonstrate that determinism can exist alongside responsibility and freedom (Llewelyn 335). Brentano discusses Aristotle’s theodicy and particularly the arguments related to the universe, humanity and God in a bid to explain the order of the universe. Aristotle’s conceptualizations about truths are likened to those of Leibniz and Plato. Generally, the book elucidates the different aspects of Aristotle’s wisdom and philosophical arguments into 40 short chapters.       

Chapter 1, which is titled ‘Life’ is a biography of Aristotle. It narrates about his early life in Athens, Plato’s influence, perceptions about Alexander the Great and family struggles. 

Chapter 2 bears the title ‘Writings’ because it dwells on Aristotle’s authorship, which was greatly influenced by Plato. Aristotle’s writing style is plagued with repetitions, ambiguity, brevity, and disjointed arguments alongside the fear of criticism.  

In chapter 3 ‘Wisdom’, Brentano defines wisdom and compares it to that of Aristotle, which combines intellect and knowledge. According to Aristotle, wisdom is associated with the infinitely perfect being, which is able to combine the knowledge on intellectual beings with that on nature.

 Chapter 4, which is titled ‘The Object of Human Wisdom’, continues with the discussion about wisdom and distinguishes human wisdom from God’s. The difficulties in using the term ‘being’ exhibits the deficiencies of human wisdom compared to the unity of divine wisdom.

Chapter 5 is about Clarification of Terms, and it demonstrates Aristotle’s characteristic devotion to explaining the terms he uses in his discussions and theories, which he attains though a mathematician’s diligence to pursue clarity.

Chapter 6 on Immediate Knowledge is very brief, comprising of 56 words. Brentano poses questions related to the possibility of having immediate possession of different truths in the absence of first nature knowledge.                                                                                                                                   

Chapter 7, which has the title “Two Classes of Immediately Evident Truths, the First of Which Is That of Immediately Evident Facts”, explores the notion of immediate truths further. Immediate evident facts and general judgements are the two types of knowledge possessed immediately through active thought, sensory stimulation, and recollection. 

Chapter 8 “Axioms” discusses Aristotle’s law of non-contradiction and explains the establishment of mathematical axioms. Aristotle advances the importance of induction and experience in making judgement. Aristotle’s use of the clause ‘at the same time’ is many laws is seen as being self-contradiction because it suggests the multiplicity of the same thing in the same instance.

Chapter 9 discusses the influences of syllogism on the doctrine of ‘Mediate Knowledge’. Analogy and induction are used to develop and justify mediate knowledge about the order of the universe and particularly the sun, moon and stars.

Chapter 10, which is titled “The Origin of Ideas” presents Aristotle’s approach to knowledge, which is different from that of Plato. By recognizing that knowledge is dependent on perceptual abilities, mediate ideas can be differentiated by the number of senses involved. 

In chapter 11 “The Transcendence of Substantial Definition” Brentano explains how Aristotle uses the law of contradictions in his consideration of the general laws of nature. Although substances are defined accidentally, the accumulation of evidence transforms the hypothetical assumptions to substantive laws and theories.

Chapter 12 on Substantial Changes: Matter and Form extends the arguments on transcendence. Corporeal and intellectual classes of substances are derived from inner perceptions of mediate knowledge as proposed in De Anima.

Chapter 13 “The Non-Existence of Continuous Substantial Transformations” advances the presence of accidental transformations that differ from the substance transformation. Substantial transformations are likened to movement, based on their continuity, which yields an unlimited number of combinations, thus describing the same substantial species. The combination of elements in definite rather than in random transitional proportions in chemistry is used to illustrate the finite number of substantial types of transformations.   

Chapter 14 “No Coming to Be from Nothing, and no Passing away into Nothing” identifies some accidental cases of becoming that do not conform to the concept of transformation.

Chapter 15, which is about the law of synonymy, investigates the domain of accidents further. Although agents are pertinent for substance generation, the products may result from nature or intellect. Artificial and natural process can deliver what are seemingly accidental outcomes, which in the law of synonymy, though matter retains its nature despite its multiple and opposite manifestations.

Chapter 16, which is about the existence of an absolutely necessary being, delves more into the transcendental assumptions about the thinking intellect. Intellect is viewed as a primary and active principle upon which all reality is grounded. Brentano differentiates the synonymy of agents in intellect and nature.   

Chapter 17 is titled ‘It Is Unmoved’ because it dwells on the notion that to understand substantial transformation, one must consider immovable entities as references. The movement of celestial bodies, such as stars, in uniformly rotating spheres is used to demonstrate the importance of an unmoved reference to describe the motion and the influence of a superior force.

In Chapter 18 “There Exists a Single, Purposeful Intelligence as First Cause of the Entire World Order” the concept of a superior force is developed further. Thought and desire are caused by motion, while the superior intelligence orders the universe in the same way human intelligence organizes art.   

Chapter 19 “This Intelligence Is the First Cause not Only of All Order but Also of All Being” advances Aristotle theodicy. Heavenly bodies are incorruptible substances whose motion and existence is guided by an intellectual substance. Efficient cause guides transformation and changelessness that order the universe.

In chapter 20, Brentano expounds on Aristotle’s concept of a superior force as a world-creating intellect. Immediate and mediate truths are combined to deliver knowledge and intellect.

In Chapter 21, Brentano discusses Aristotle’s doctrine of God as divine intellect. According to Aristotle, God embodies love, and He is the first principle of knowledge since he creates good things in his likeness and admonishes evil. 

In chapter 22, Brentano explores the concept of infinite goodness and perfection as the foundations of existential purpose. Aristotle contends that changeability underlies the purpose of goodness and existence, thus enabling him to reconcile the objections raised about the link between goodness and love.

In chapter 23, Brentano concludes on Aristotle’s principle of God by associating it with the knowledge of knowledge and the knowledge of wisdom, whose product is joy.

In Chapter 24, Brentano explains how Aristotle distinguishes the deity from goodness based on the differences in existential independence. Aristotle contradicts Plato in the conceptualization of the deity by addressing the confusion from his ideal of divine influence and the platonic ideal causation of the existence of things.

In Chapter 25, Brentano discusses Aristotle’s critique of Anaxagoras’s doctrine of the intellect and Plato’s theory of ideas. The author highlights the contradictions and similarities of the different theological concepts. However, Aristotle and Anaxagoras agree on the world-ordering intellect but differ on the causation of the ordering.

In Chapter 26 Brentano delves into the prejudice and misconceptions of modern commentators in their critique of Aristotle’s concept of an omnipresent God and his knowledge of negativity. Aristotle’s brevity is blamed for the misconceptions.

In Chapter 27 “God’s Undivided Activity: His Purely Theoretical Life”, Brentano dwells on the misconceptions of modern critics. Brentano presents examples of the contested quotations, such as, ‘God does not lead a product-directed life’ and ‘the deity does not lead a practical life’. While Aristotle maintains that thinking and wiling cannot be accommodated in a single activity, the complexity between theoretical and practical life is exposed.

Chapter 28 discusses the objections raised by Zeller regarding God’s will and motive. The benevolence of God’s love can be administered disinterestedly, unlike human love, which is often backed by a motive.

In Chapter 29, Brentano questions the contradictions between the theoretical perceptions of God and worldly experiences. He explores the self-contradictory nature of infinite extension and multiplicity.

In Chapter 30, Brentano introduces polytheism in Aristotle’s conception of divine intelligence. The celestial world is layered with numerous gods that are subservient to God who embodies omniscience and unmoved intelligence. All the explanations are based on Aristotle’s ontological doctrine. 

In Chapter 31, Brentano discloses Aristotle’s belief in the divine preservation rather than creation of the universe. Although Aristotle agreed with Plato on the four elements doctrine, he disagreed with atomism and infinite particularity advanced by Democritus and Anaxagoras.

In Chapter 32, Brentano advances Aristotle’s linking of the sublunary and celestial worlds. The concept of the soul, which connects the celestial and territorial worlds, is advanced using other terms such as spirit and life-awakening warmth while insinuating the evolution of species through lower lifeforms.

In Chapter 33, Brentano discusses the nature and place of humans in the order of the universe. According to Aristotle, man has both bodily and mental dimensions that distinguished humans from animals and plants.

In Chapter 34, Brentano discusses the interaction between the bodily and mental domains of humankind. The concept of active intellect is introduced to explain the thinking and willing capacities of humans.

In Chapter 35, Brentano explains human procreation as the interaction between the corporeal and divine aspects that create the body and soul of human beings.

In Chapter 36, Brentano discusses how humans are elevated to the deity level in the terrestrial world. Humans embody divinity because of their intellectual ability, active thinking, and enjoyable life.

In Chapter 37, Brentano focuses on the purpose of human life in its journey towards divine bliss as a part of God’s plan.

In Chapter 38, Brentano ventures into Aristotle’s thoughts about the utility of the physical world in the divine plan, despite its limitations. According to Aristotle, the physical world is useful without being intrinsically good.

In Chapter 39, Brentano seeks to understand Aristotle’s paradoxes in his conceptualization of the purpose of the universe and human beings. The inconsistency in God’s purpose for creating a fallible human is documented alongside Aristotle’s philosophical struggles to explain it.  

In Chapter 40, Brentano concludes remarks about Aristotle’s philosophy compared with other world views. Brentano places Aristotle’s world order in context and supports his metaphysics. He praises the superiority of Aristotle’s theodicy over that of Leibniz and likens it to Plato’s worldview and Christian eschatology.

Finally, the bibliography includes the elaborate endnotes. Excerpts from Brentano’s other writings and those of other authors clarify Aristotle’s philosophical concepts and perceptions (Llewelyn 336). Brentano also provides an elaborate index at the end of his book, which is preceded by endnotes that expound various works that have been cited and terms used by Aristotle and other commentators.

Works Cited

Brentano, Franz Clemens. Aristotle and His World View. University of California Press, 1978.

Llewelyn, John E. “Book Review: Aristotle and His World View.” The Philosophical Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 117, 1979, pp. 335-356.