Motivational Needs Theory

Posted: December 21st, 2022

Motivational Needs Theory

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Motivational Needs Theory

Motivation of human beings is closely tied to their needs. Needs-based motivational theories explain how human behavior is motivated by the satisfaction of their diverse needs. These needs are contextual and sometimes hierarchical. Consequently, leaders can motivate desirable behavior of their followers by attending to their diverse needs in different contexts. Their motivational strategies require an intimate understanding of the conscious and unconscious needs of individuals and groups of individuals at different times and in different settings. This literature review focuses on the existing knowledge about the needs-based motivational theories and their application in different settings. It focuses on the needs-based theories, which describe motivated behavior as efforts exerted by individuals to meet their needs. Therefore, leaders are tasked with identifying what people need and ensure that the environment is conducive for satisfying these needs. The needs-based theories considered include Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, ERG theory of motivation, McGregor’s theory X and theory Y, McClelland’s acquired needs theory, and the self-determination theory. These theories have been further developed to yield newer theories, such as the goal achievement theory. Therefore, this review focuses on needs-based theories from a leadership perspective and in sports settings.

Origin of Motivational Leadership

Motivational leadership originated in management science where organizational leaders were challenged by productivity and efficiency in their workplace and how the could improve worker output. Urick, Adams, and Smith (2017) note that Taylorism, formulated by Fredrick Taylor in 1914, which introduced scientific management at the workplace viewed employees as mechanical workers that were motivated only by wages and salaries because they had no intention of working efficiently. Despite its narrow view of employee motivation, Taylorism laid the foundation of motivation studies that yielded the current motivational theories.  Urick, Adams, and Smith (2017) also recognize the input of Elton Mayo who introduced the human relation perspective to employee motivation through his Hawthorne studies.  After that, the differentiation of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation emerged, broadening the strategies that leaders could employ to motivate their followers, and managers, their employees. Ryan and Deci (2019) trace the evolution of motivation scholarship that led to the formulation of the self-determination theory. They note that although extrinsic motivation was the focus of studies by, the multidisciplinary involvement of psychologists, social psychologists, and neuroscientists helped broaden the self-determination theory to include intrinsic motivation, following studies by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan in the 1970’s and 1980’s. Al Harbi, Alarifi and Mosbah (2018) clarify extrinsic motivation to be the use of instrumental gain and lose to influence behavior, while intrinsic motivation promotes behavior exhibited for its own sake rather than some external outcome. Consequently, several motivation theories have emerged that explain the utility of international and external factors in motivating behavior. 

Several motivational theories guide leaders and managers at the workplace. Shahrawat and Shahrawat (2017) revealed that although Maslow’s hierarchy of needs aptly classifies employees’ needs and the basic drivers of behavior, the needs could different among different personalities. Maslow classified human needs hierarchically, with the lower-level needs comprising the physiological and safety ones while the higher levels needs were social, esteem and self-actualization (Shahrawat & Shahrawat, 2017). However, Beall and Tracy (2017) advance Maslow’s theory by focusing on the role of emotions in motivation. They came up with emotional needs, such as parenting, mate retention, mate acquisition, status, affiliation and self-protection needs as high order needs that need to be satisfied to resolve adaptive challenges. In addition, Patricia and Asoba (2021) explained several theories of motivations, some of which are needs-based. Specifically, they explained Alderfer’s ERG theory of motivation as being very similar to Maslow’s. Specifically, what Alderfer termed as existence needs, Maslow called the physiological and security needs, while relatedness needs were social and esteem needs, and growth needs was the need for self-actualization (Patricia & Asoba, 2021). In addition, Patricia and Asoba (2021) explained Herzburg’s Two-Factor Theory by noting that employees encountered conditions that made them feel good about their jobs and others that made them feel bad. Consequently, after studying the motivation of 200 engineers and accountants, Herzberg concluded that motivators were the job-satisfiers related to job content while hygiene factors were the job- dissatisfiers related with the job context. Similarly, Patricia and Asoba (2021) explained McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y noting that it was related to the assumptions made by leaders and managers regarding the motivation of their employees. They explained that leaders and managers modified their behavior towards their employees based on the different assumptions made about different employees. Patricia and Asoba (2021) went further to explain McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory, which postulated that some people strived for personal achievement instead of being driven by the rewards of success, and thus has an overwhelming determination to succeed. Reeve, J., & Lee, W. (2019) have gone on to expand the needs that people seek to satisfy to include the need for relatedness, competence and autonomy as psychological needs that need to be satisfied to sustain and stimulate personal wellbeing and growth.

Therefore, the following summary about the motivational leadership and the different needs-based theories can be made from Urick, Adams, and Smith (2017), Ryan and Deci (2019), Al Harbi, Alarifi, and Mosbah (2018), Patricia and Asoba (2021) and Shahrawat & Shahrawat (2017). Specifically, early formulations of motivation theories focused on maximizing production, ignoring the human aspects. However, over time, the psychological aspects of motivation gained relevance with the recognition of the importance of human relations in leadership efficiency and success. The needs-based theories are a product of the paradigm shift towards the individual rather than the organization. In this regard, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory classified 5 internal needs hierarchically, while Alderfer’s ERG theory of motivation reduces the classification of needs to three and eliminates their hierarchy. However, McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory, unlike Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory and Alderfer’s ERG theory of motivation, which implied that human needs are preexisting, suggests that needs are acquired by individuals over time as they gain experience. This means that younger people with limited experience have fewer and lower-level needs to satisfy compared to their older counterparts with more experience. In the same vein, Herzburg’s Two-Factor Theory juxtaposes motivation and demotivation by positing that motivators enhance individual motivation while hygienes demotivate individuals. In this regard, this regard, Herzburg addresses demotivation, which was not addressed by the other theorists. Similarly, McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y introduced a leaders/managers perspective of motivation by positing that leaders and managers reacted to the motivations of employees and adjusted their behaviors accordingly, thus influencing their motivation strategies. Taylor et al. (2019) that the self-determination theory was a popular theory in leadership development and can be employed in leadership coaching. It attended to the need for competence, autonomy and relatedness among leaders, thus enabling self-drive and sustained change

All in all, these needs-based motivation theories are used by leaders and managers in workplaces and organization to influence the workplace behavior of their employees.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Needs-based motivation theories have several advantages and disadvantages in explaining employee motivation, while some address the limitations of others.

Advantages

The advantages of the needs-based theories emanated from their recognition of the pertinence of human needs as a compelling force informing the behavior of individuals, groups of individuals, and their leaders and managers. The only difference is that some theories arranged these needs hierarchically such that one need was to be satisfied before an individual could move on to the next need in the hierarchy, as is the case with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, while others posited that multiple needs could be pursued simultaneously without any prioritization, as explained by Patricia and Asoba (2021). In addition, Dweck (2017) demonstrated that needs and the application of the needs-based theories revealed the motivation and personality of an individual. She noted that personality theories, which use need used to assess the character of people, were built around needs and can be used to develop motivation strategies. Needs-based theories also facilitated intrinsic motivation of employees in an organization and bolstered knowledge sharing, which was critical for organsational performance and career progression (Novitasari et al., 2021). Similarly, Slemp et al. (2018) argued leadership autonomy support was a leadership style focused on nurturing employees’ inner motivational resources. In turn, leaders could marshal these resources by encouraging self-initiative, providing sufficient opportunities to making choices and inputs, and avoiding the excessive use of external rewards and sanctions to motivate desirable employee behavior.  Slemp et al. (2018) conclude that using this leadership style can improve organsational management by increasing employee engagement and performance, and enhancing the employee’s overall wellbeing.

Disadvantages

One disadvantage with needs-based theories is that they do not explain the satisfaction of unconscious needs, as noted by Rybnicek, Bergner and Gutschelhofer (2019).  Similarly, Desmet, P., & Fokkinga, S. (2020) explains the limitation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory as being inconsiderate of diverse cultures because it was formulated in the American cultural settings in which individual realization was the highest goal. Therefore, the theory has limited applicability in collective societies because it ignores social needs. Besides, the theory cannot be used to generalize the different needs of people across educational levels, genders, ages, and social classes and ignores needs such as the need for individuality, virtue, justice, wisdom, transcendence, creativity, autonomy, play and beauty, among many others.

Effects

Short-Term Effects

The short-term effects of needs-based theories were improving the employee’s working environment and outputs at the workplace. For instance, Velmurugan and Sankar (2017) noted that satisfying the basic of employees reduced their stress at the workplace, improved employee retention, and promoted work satisfaction.
Long-Term Effects

The long-term effects of applying the need-based theories in workplaces are that they induced an organizational behavioral change and transformed the organizational culture. For instance, Olafsen, Deci and Halvari (2018) explained that motivation theories had contributed to the development of the self-determination theory, which has expanded out understanding of intrinsic motivation.  Application of this theory promoted the autonomy of an individual in the long term and sustained the intrinsic motivation in an organsational setting. Similarly, Rybnicek, Bergner & Gutschelhofer (2019) argued that need-based motivation theories paved way for personality-based approach to motivating employees at work. They also added that the theories helped develop non-monetary rewards or employees, which has similar impact on motivation as monetary rewards. Consequently, the personality-based rewards given to employees were more satisfying to employees yet cost-effective to the organization.

Racial Aspects in Urban Areas

Radke et al. (2020) explained how the racial tension can be addressed by having advantaged groups attend to the needs of disadvantaged ones while satisfying their own. Their study explained how whites, the advantaged group, used their needs for morality and paternalism motivated then to engage in altruistic actions for their African American counterparts as the disadvantaged group. 
African American Communities

Ryan and Deci (2020) revealed that the psychological needs of groups could be explained using the self-determination theory. Students from different cultures had differing needs for relatedness, competence and autonomy. Usher (2018) emphasized the need for cultural competence in addressing the needs of diverse students in education settings, which were dominated by Eurocentric educational policies. Marginalized communities like the African Americans could have their needs for relatedness and visibility attended to using needs-based motivation theories.

African American Males

Sari, Natsir and Valiantien (2017) demonstrated that the needs of African American males could be addressed using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. The study revealed that the character of young African American boys could be transformed when their self-esteem love and belonging needs were met.

In Educational Settings

In education settings, the needs-based motivation theories explain the motivation to learn and achieve high academic outcomes.  Goldman, Goodboy, and Weber (2017) in their study using the student psychological needs scale and the intrinsic motivation to learn scale students revealed that the psychological needs of students can be fulfilled using personalized education because it bolstered the intrinsic motivation to learn. Goldman, Goodboy, and Weber (2017) argued that students became self-determined when they had the opportunity to demonstrate their capabilities and stretch their abilities to new levels because personalized education promoted cognitive and affective learning. Therefore, teachers motivated their students using the needs approach by being accessible, designing courses that incorporating students’ interests and communicating appropriately and effectively with students. From their findings, Goldman, Goodboy and Weber, 2017) concluded that using the self-determination theory through personalized education delivered positive motivational outcomes because it addressed the students’ need for autonomy, relatedness and competence. In the same vain, Allen et al. (2018) revealed that school belongingness was a critical need among students in an educational setting, which when satisfied, could motivate high academic performance and promote wellbeing outcomes. In turn, school administrators needed to work with parents and communities to promote school belongingness among students.    

However, Boocock (2017) warned that although the needs-based motivation approach attended to the needs of disadvantages students, the promoted a performative culture in which students were commoditized into items with presentational and financial value. Consequently, the needs-based approach may be detrimental to educational equity and undermine the benefits derived from education.

In Athletic and Sports Settings

In athletics and sports settings, the needs-based motivation theories explain the motivation to exert oneself physically and achieve high levels of performance. Morgan (2017) explained that motivation in physical activity and education addressed the psychological needs of students. He noted that the achieve goal theory and the self-determination theory were useful to physical education teachers and sports coaches because they helped them develop motivation strategies to address the psychological needs of students, such as the need to achieve high goals and self-determine. However, Morgan (2017) explained that motivational approaches needed to incorporate pedagogical structures to create a motivational climate in sports and education settings. Similarly, Trigueros et al. (2020) revealed that satisfying the basics psychological needs motivated physical activity an people intrinsically.

American Football Coaches

American football coaches employ the needs motivation theories to motivate high performance levels in their teams and focus their aspirations to wining national championships. Sari, Natsir and Valiantien (2017) analyzed the character of Michael Jerome Oher, and accomplished American football player, as depicted in the movie, The Blind Side. The study analyzed how Oher transformed from a silent child to a confident American football player through coaches that attended to his needs using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. The study revealed that satisfying the needs of young players could transform their character and turn them into successful individuals later in life. 

High School Football Coaches

High school football coaches also utilize the needs-based motivational theories to inspire their teams and drive them to win inter-school championships. A systematic review by Chu and Zhang (2018) revealed that needs-based theories, particularly the achievement goal theory and the self-determination theory supported the motivational influence of sports education among secondary school students. These theories informed the motivation strategies needed to attend to the needs for autonomy, relatedness and competence, which were significant in sports education. In turn, the motivational benefit was delivered across all grades and gender as well as across different motivational and sports profiles. In the same vein, Balaguer et al. (2018) used the self-determination theory to study the effect of autonomy support among coaches of young football players. Their study focused on how the players’ needs were satisfied through intrinsic motivation. Their study revealed that the autonomy support provided by coaches of young football players promoted the players’ leisure experienced and improved their wellbeing. This study has practical implications on coaching because it emphasizes the importance of employing autonomy-supportive interpersonal approaches as a leadership style in coaching in which players are made to realize that their objectives, values and perspectives are respected by the coach. In turn, coaches can modify their coaching behavior based on their understanding of the players’ perspectives and feelings. This gave the coaches an opportunity to minimize external rewards, promote initiative taking, and provide meaningful information related to the players’ full potentials.  

Conclusion

Needs-based motivational theories are critical and useful in explaining the behavior of individuals and teams in different settings. They suggest that individuals and teams have needs they want to fulfill and leaders or managers have the primary task of satisfying these needs using organizational resources. These theories highlight the critical place of needs in directing motivational strategies in minority communities, and educational and sporting settings. However, the literature also revealed the various weaknesses inherent in the needs-based theories. Specifically, these theories are not sufficient for explaining the needs of non-Eurocentric individuals and communities because they were formulated in the dominant Eurocentric American culture. In this regard, they revealed the research gaps that need to be addressed, including the need to investigate their utility in African American sports setting, particularly in American football. In this regard, the literature provides an opportunity to further research in motivating African American football players at leisurely, armature, and professional levels and develop motivational strategies for coaches. 

References

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Balaguer, I., Castillo, I., Cuevas, R., & Atienza, F. (2018). The importance of coaches’ autonomy support in the leisure experience and well-being of young footballers. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 840.

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Boocock, A. (2017). Caveats for the new localism in further education–why the use of principal–agent solutions at the local level will not work. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 22(2), 289-313.

Chu, T. L., & Zhang, T. (2018). Motivational processes in Sport Education programs among high school students: A systematic review. European Physical Education Review, 24(3), 372-394.

Desmet, P., & Fokkinga, S. (2020). Beyond Maslow’s pyramid: introducing a typology of thirteen fundamental needs for human-centered design. Multimodal technologies and interaction, 4(3), 38.

Dweck, C. S. (2017). From needs to goals and representations: Foundations for a unified theory of motivation, personality, and development. Psychological review, 124(6), 689.

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