The Physical Geography of Orange County

Posted: August 25th, 2021

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The Physical Geography of Orange County

Introduction

Orange is a county within the Los Angeles metropolitan area, CA. It borders Los Angeles, the Pacific Ocean, Riverside, San Bernardino, and San Diego. The history of the county is traced back about a thousand years ago with the settlement of the first people in the area. Until the 1950s, Orange’s principal economic activity was agriculture. Citrus became particularly popular as other crops disappeared (“A Brief History”). According to the 2010 census, Orange is the third most populous county in California. As of July 2018, its population was 39.6 million, representing a 12 percent rise since 2010. The county covers 948 square miles, making it the smallest county in Southern California by are (“California”). Orange experiences a Mediterranean climate characterized by warm-dry summers and cool-wet winters (“California Precipitation 1”). Orange’s physical landscape comprises different landforms and processes, hydrological systems and processes, flora and fauna, weather and climatic elements, and other features that contribute to its uniqueness. Some of the features are presented in this discussion along with appropriate pictorials.

Orange’s Physical Features

Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation

Water is the most abundant compound on Earth. About 70 percent of the Earth is covered with water, which constitutes the hydrosphere (Hess and Tasa102). The water moves between the global reservoirs through the hydrological cycle (Hess and Tasa102). The movement is facilitated by the ability of water to change through the three states of matter, solid, liquid, and gas. High temperatures cause surface water to evaporate into the atmosphere where there are condensed into liquid and, under sufficient conditions, fall back as precipitation. From the U.S. Census Bureau, about 83 percent of the area is dry land, with only 17 percent covered with water. Orange’s primary watercourse is the Santa Ana River (“California”). With a length of 96 miles and a 2,650 square mile drainage basin, Santa Ana is the largest river in Southern California (“Facts and Figures”). The county has other watercourses, including San Juan and Aliso creeks. Orange’s atmospheric moisture is in various forms, including clouds, rains and showers, storms (such as atmospheric rivers), and snow. This section presents some of the county’s hydrological features.

Precipitation: Cloud Formation (Altostratus Clouds)

Topic: Precipitation: Clouds

Chapter: Chapter 6, Atmospheric Moisture

Page: 102

Date: Nov 2, 2019, 3:40 p.m.

Location: Oak Creek, Irvine, CA

Description: Altostratus Clouds Forming above Motorists

Analysis

In California, Oak Creek, Irvine is among the best places to live. The neighborhood offers residents a mix of suburban and urban feel. Oak Creek also has some beautiful sceneries that appeal to the eye. The above image is of a cloud formation above a road in Oak Creek, Irvine. Clouds play essential roles in the balancing of the earth’s energy and moisture. They are the primary medium through which water in the atmosphere condenses and fall as rain or other forms of precipitation. Clouds form when warm air masses are lifted into the atmosphere cooled and expanded. The cooling and expansion cause the moisture in an air mass to condense into droplets, which form the basis of clouds (Hess and Tasa119). Depending on the prevailing conditions, the water within the clouds may or may not fall on the ground.

Different lifting mechanisms result in the formation of different cloud types, which can be classified as either high (above 6 km from the ground), middle (2-6 km from the ground), and low (below 2 km off the ground) (Hess and Tasa 121). The cloud in the image is of the genus altostratus. Altostratus clouds (shown above) occur as a uniform sheet of moisture. The color can range from bluish to grey. Typically, the layers allow for thin penetration of sun rays. However, on some occasions (as shown in the picture), the layers can be thick such that they block sun rays from reaching the Earth’s surface resulting in a gloomy atmosphere. With increased precipitation, altostratus can develop into thick nimbostratus (Hess and Tasa119). The weather portrayed in the picture above demonstrates such a situation. In addition to the clouds, the image also shows Orange’s vegetation cover. Orange is a host to many plant species, some of which are discussed in a subsequent section.

Precipitation: Cloud Formation (Stratocumulus Clouds)

Topic: Precipitation: Clouds

Chapter: Chapter 6, Atmospheric Moisture

Page: 102

Date: Nov 2, 2019, 5.10 p.m.

Location: Newport Beach, Newport Beach, CA

Description: Stratocumulus Clouds at Sunset, Newport Beach

Analysis

Rainy seasons can provide both beautiful and gloomy sights at Orange. Averagely, the county experiences warmer temperatures, more extended periods of sunny periods, and lower rainfall levels, and fewer days (about 35 days a year) of rainfall than U.S. averages (“California Precipitation”). During cold days, the region experience repeated occurrences of low and heavy clouds, such as stratocumulus (as shown in the image above). Stratocumulus clouds are low clouds with flat bases. Theyusually appear as lumpy layers of low (less than two kilometers) clouds, generally in lines or groups. Although not always, they are accompanied by low-intensity precipitation. They occur in different colors ranging from light grey to grey.  They may appear as rolls, rounded masses, or other shape forms, with some breaks between them revealing the sky above them (Hess and Tasa ). In the above photo, dark and dramatic stratocumulus clouds float over Orange’s Newport Beach, giving the area’s landscape a spectacular break from the blue sky. Such scenes are frequent occurrences along Orange’s coastal line.  

The picture was taken at sunset. Light rays from the sun travel in different wavelengths through space above the sky. As they strike the Earth’s atmosphere, they interact with different atmospheric particles, including water droplets, dust, or ice crystals. When they interact with the tiny air molecules, the waves are scattered into several directions. The nature of the scattering depends mainly on the size of the particles. Within the visible spectrum, red, orange, and yellow waves have the longest wavelengths (lowest frequencies) and are scattered the least by air particles. At sunsets and sunrises, light waves from the sun travel long distances before they can reach the Earth’s surface. Only long-wavelength waves (red, orange, and yellow) strike the surface resulting in either red or orange cast, as shown on the image. Below the clouds is beach sand, which also reflects the color above it. The colors are likely enhanced by dust and other particles that may be present along the beach. Such beautiful scenes are frequent occurrences along Orange’s coastline, especially during humid days. 

Precipitation: Rainfall

Topic: Precipitation: Rainfall

Chapter: Chapter 6, Atmospheric Moisture

Page: 102

Date: Nov 29, 2019, 11.20 a.m.

Location: Laguna Niguel

Description: Light Drizzles

Analysis

As stated previously, clouds contain water droplets. When the clouds are warm, the droplets experienced increased collisions. As they collide, they lose some of their energy and condense. Increased condensation to a sufficient weight causes the droplets to fall as rain or other forms of precipitation (Hess and Tasa119). Precipitation in Orange, like other parts of California, is highly variable across the year with the bulk of it occurring from October to April. Specifically, about 90 percent of the region’s annual precipitation occurs between the first day of October and the last day of April. Nearly half of the yearly precipitations falls over three months from December to February (“California Precipitation 1”). During periods of heavy precipitation, storms, including atmosphericrivers, off the Pacific Ocean causes snow and rain to fall.

Winters in Orange are also characterized by extended periods of soggy weather across the region and other parts of California, as shown in the above image. The picture, which was taken from inside a car, shows slight drizzles (evident from the water droplets on the screen and the atmosphere above the screen. The timing of the picture (November 29) corresponds to the onset of the three months of the heaviest precipitation in the area. Five days after (on December 4), atmospheric rivers were reported in the neighboring county of Los Angeles, which is also consistent with the description above (Fry).The rains should continue up to the end of February. In addition to the weather condition, the picture also reveals some of the Orange’s landforms and vegetation. The area from which the image was taken is a hilly portion of the road. The county hosts over 50 high points. The highest point is the Santiago Peak on the Santa Ana Mountains. In addition to the hill, trees and other forms of vegetation can also be seen from the picture.

Climate Change at Orange

Climate change is the most common topic in contemporary environmental management and for good reasons. According to the U.N. Environmental Program (UNEP), the world faces a global climate emergency (“Climate Change”). The term is used to encompass the abnormal changes in the global climate and their associated impacts. Specifically, the term is used to refer to significant and long-term modifications of the expected trends in the average weather of a place over an extended period (Hess and Tasa272). Climate change has many negative impacts on the stability of the ecosystem.

The county of Orange, like the rest of California and the world, has experienced notable changes in climate patterns since the mod 20^th century. A recent study made by the University of Maryland reveals the current state of Orange County regarding climate change. According to the study findings, if the current green emission rates are maintained, by 2080, winters will be about 2⁰C warmer than the current levels. The report further shows evidence of potential microclimatic modification within the country, even if the emissions were to reduce. For example, in 2018, the climate of San Clemente will be similar to that of Downey, coastal Orange climate will be like that of Los Angeles, while inland Orange will become like Baja (Fitzpatrick). Much of the damage is attributed to human activities, as illustrated below.

Environmental Degradation

Topic: People and the Environment: Habitat Loss

Chapter: Chapter 8, Climate and Climate Change

Page: 272

Date: Sept 26, 2019, 1:33 p.m.

Location:

Description: Environmental Degradation

Analysis

Environmental degradation is one of the leading causes of climate change. Environmental degradation refers to a modification in the natural environment that has undesirable consequences (“Environmental Degradation”). It results from deteriorations in natural resources, such as soil and vegetation cover, pollution, habitat destruction, or loss of species.  Human activities contribute to climate change in various ways, the release of pollutants (such as industrial gases and affluent) to the environment. One of the routes through which humans contribute to climate change is the destruction of vegetation cover.

As producers, plants play important roles in the ecosystem. In addition to providing food to other organisms, plants contribute to the stability of atmospheric gases (oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide), temperatures, and the hydrological cycle. They are also home to many animals. Humans cut vegetation for several economic reasons, including cultivation, building and construction, industrial activities, and as a source of energy. In the above picture, plants were cleared to construct the family house and cattle shed. Although such activities contribute to the economy, they also result in substantial vegetation losses. Mass vegetation losses lead to significant ecological imbalances and loss of habitat for animals, all of which contribute to climate change.

Strategies aimed at maintaining and recovering lost vegetation, such as afforestation, contribute to the stability of the environment. Climate change has been linked to many adverse developments and catastrophes, including abnormal rises in temperature, rising sea levels, storms, intense droughts, wildfires, global warming, food insecurity, and loss of wildlife (Hess and Tasa283). In Orange, the county’s unique and beautiful natural sceneries, including its flora and fauna, are threatened by climate change. Such events have dire consequences on the survival of the entire human population.

Orange’s Terrestrial Flora

A substantial proportion of the earth’s physical geography is made of the flora (plants) and fauna (animals). Millions of plant and animal species have been discovered on the Earth, and it is scientists believe that millions of others are yet to be discovered. Notably, some studies report a positive association between vegetation cover and a region’s income (Avolio et al. 13). The County of Orange has many life forms. Many of these species live on land (terrestrial organisms.  Despite its dense population, Orange has a space preserved for natural flora and fauna. According to California Native Plant Society, Orange is hosts nearly 1,500 naturalized and native plants, making it one of North America’s most diverse botanical regions, including the rare beautiful Engelmann oak (Quercus engelmannii) (Native Plants and Flora). In this section, some of Orange’s terrestrial flora.

Vegetation Cover

Topic: Terrestrial Flora

Chapter: Chapter 11, Terrestrial Flora and Fauna

Page: 376

Date: Oct 6, 2019, 4.58 p.m.

Location: Jeffrey Road, Irvine, CA

Description: Vegetation along Jeffrey Road

Analysis

A substantial proportion of Orange’s landscape is covered with a variety of terrestrial plant species. According to the California Department of Fish and Wildlife, the county has over 85,000 acres of vegetation with the coastal scrubs (coastal saltmarsh, maritime chaparral, woodlands and forests, and riparian thickets) accounting for nearly 43 percent of the region’s terrestrial flora (“Orange County Vegetation” 5).As used in this discussion, the term vegetation applies to all plants growing in a given location or region. Terrestrial plants are of significant interest in the study of physical geography for at least three reasons: they are the most significant visible component of the natural landscape, they are an indicator of the state of the environment, and they also influence human activities (Hess and Tasa389). These three points are illustrated in the image shown above. The picture is a section of Jeffrey Road, Irvine, CA. First, different grass, herb, and tree species can be seen along the roadsides, which shows the high occurrence of plants. Second, the plants hold the soil on the sides of the road and, thus, enhance their stability, thereby acting as an indicator of the environmental conditions in the area. Finally, the path through which the road cuts appears to have once been covered by naturally growing plants, showing that human activities influenced nature.

Terrestrial Flora: The Willows of Laguna

Topic: Terrestrial Flora:

Chapter: Chapter 11, Terrestrial Flora and Fauna

Page: 374

Date: Oct 4, 2019, 4.08 p.m.

Location: Laguna Beach, Laguna Beach, CA

Description: Willows along Laguna Beac

Analysis

Willows are a group of deciduous shrubs and trees of the genus Salix that grow mainly in moist and temperate regions. Botanists have identified about 400 species belonging to Salix(Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica). The plants have large and tough fibrous roots that sprout readily from their areal parts. The roots support the soft (usually flexible but tough) trunk and slender branches. Most species have elongated leaves with serrated margins, although some may have round or oval outlines (Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica).The plants are a host to a range of other organisms, such as fungi and aphids.  

In Southern California, the most prevalent willow species is the Arroyo (Salix lasiolepis) (see left of the image), a short-lived and fast-growing multi-stemmed shrub that grows up to about 30 feet (“Arroyo Willow”). The barks are smooth with the twigs ranging from yellowish to darkbrown. Along with water bodies, such as streams or ponds, Arroyos can form dense thickets, as shown in the picture. S. lasiolepis is among California’s native pioneer species (“Arroyo Willow”). In the picture, the plants can be seen to be growing closer together to form a dense structure. A riparian of Arroyo willows extends from the Canyon Sycamore and forms a beautiful scenery along Laguna’s coastline.

The Pacific willow (S.Lucida) on the right of the picture also grows in some parts of orange, especially along Laguna Beach. The shinning willow species grows mainly in wetlands. The species is relatively taller than S. lasiolepis and can grow up to about 36 feet above the ground. The narrow elliptic or lanceolate leaves usually have a glossy dark green upper surface and a glaucous green lower surface. In the picture, they are seen as growing alongside the S. lasiolepis plants and can be identified by their tall heights. They are among the unique vegetation species that are natives of North America. In addition to the plants, this picture, taken toward sunset, also reveals some of the hill ranges that form Orange’s physical landscape.

Terrestrial Flora: The Coastal Sage Scrub

Topic: Terrestrial Flora:

Chapter: Chapter 11, Terrestrial Flora and Fauna

Page: 374

Date: Sept 23, 2019, 6.23 p.m. 

Location: Crystal Cove, Laguna Beach, CA

Description: Coastal Sage Scrub along Laguna Beach

Analysis

The coastal sage scrub is a community of low-growing shrubs within the California coastal sage and chaparral sub-ecoregion. The deciduous shrubs have adaptive features for survival in the semi-arid Mediterranean climate that characterizes the region. Several species constitute the scrub, including black and white sages (Salvia mellifera and S. apiana), California buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum), California sagebrush (Artemisia californica),Coast brittle-bush (Encelia californica), and Golden yarrow (Eriophyllum confertifolium). Large shrubs, including Lemonade berry (Rhus integrifolia) and Toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia) are also found in the scrubland. In addition to the shrubs, other coastal sage’s flora is a range of herbaceous plant species, including cacti, grasses, locales, and succulents.

The picture above, taken on a cloudy evening, shows a section of sage scrub along Laguna Beach and adjacent to a road. Most of the visible features of the plants are the characteristics of deciduous plants growing in arid and semi-arid areas. The majority of the plants in the image are far from green, suggesting that they shed off their leaves to survive the just-ended dry spell. Most of them are not standing upright, suggesting reduced turgidity due to the effects of drought. The altostratus clouds above the pants are grey and indicate a rainy season. Although the rainy season has returned, the plants are yet to grow their leaves. They also appear to be trapping numerous dust particles (as indicated by their dull color), which further shows the effects of drought. The intensity of the dust may have been amplified by the presence of the road, a situation that demonstrates the destructive effects that human activities have on the natural environment. In addition to portraying Orange’s beautiful scenery, the image also highlights the threat that social activities and unfavorable weather conditions pose to the county’s flora.

Terrestrial Flora: The Coastal Sage Scrub

Topic: Terrestrial Flora:

Chapter: Chapter 11, Terrestrial Flora and Fauna

Page: 374

Date: Sept 26, 2019, 4.53 p.m.

Location: Irvine Spectrum Center, Irvine, CA

Description: Vegetation along a Road

Analysis

Orange’s floraalso includes panted vegetation, those grown by humans, which may be indigenous or exotic. They include agricultural plants on farmlands, trees along roadsides, trees, woody shrubs, or ornamental plants at people’s homes, as well as urban forests. Planted trees have many economic, social, and ecological contributions. They provide oxygen, ensures the cleanliness of atmospheric air, improve soil stability, and help in combating climate change. They can also be a source of income, either directly through sales or indirectly through activities such as tourism. Planted trees also enhance human-wildlife coexistence by providing the later with a place to live.

California, and in particular, Orange boast of an extensive planted vegetation cover with a diverse range of species. A 2015 study identified 114 species in southern California’s urban forest, of which Orange is a part. In Orange, the study found that most of the vegetation is concentrated in the wealthy neighborhoods of the county. Hot neighborhoods were found to have a higher concentration of residential shade trees than their cool counterparts (Avolio et al. 13). The above image is an exhibit of Orange’s planted vegetation. At least six different species are visible from the picture. The scenery is pleasant and appears to be a cool environment. The picture demonstrates the economic value of plants and a practical way through which humans can engage in economic activities while contributing to the stability of the environment. Such green-oriented exploitation of natural resources is essential for combating climate change.  

Coastal Processes and Landforms

Coastal landforms and processes that occur at the interface of sea and land. Hence, coastal terrains are shaped mainly by the erosional and deposition effects of waves and currents, which are usually influenced by local or regional characteristics, including geology, climate, seafloor geometry, vegetation, seismic waves, and storm surges. The interactions between these factors lead to a broad range of physical processes and features, including beaches, estuaries, cliffs, rias, dunes, reefs, and bays. All the interactions occur mainly at the coastline, and they can extend over a broad zone. Hence, many coastal landforms can occur several miles from the shore and below sea level. A large proportion of Orange’s northwestern region is located on the coastal plain of the Los Angeles Basin, a sedimentary basin within the Peninsular Ranges. This area is characterized by various coastal landforms and processes, some of which are included in this discussion.

Beaches: Laguna Beach

Topic: Coastal Landforms: Depositional landforms

Chapter: Chapter 20, Coastal Processes and Terrain

Page: 654

Date: Oct 6, 2019

Location: Laguna Beach Crystal Cove, Laguna Beach, CA

Description: Beach

Analysis

Lying about an hour’s drive south of the city of Los Angeles, Laguna forms a remarkable setting above some of California’s coastal landforms. A visit to the Victoria Beach, Laguna, brings one into contact with several coastal processes and landforms and highlights the impacts of sea waves and winds on land features. The image shown above illustrates the formation of beaches. Beaches are among the most prominent coastal landforms. The water in the ocean is at a constant state of movement. As winds move across the water surface, the air collides with water molecules. The friction between water and air results in the transfer of energy from wind to water. The energy traveling across the water causes the particles to move in up-down directions, leading to the formation of waves. The image shown above was taken at a time when the water was relatively calm. Still, small waves can be seen hitting the shore.

Beaches result from strong waves and current actions, which erode and transport rock particles from a water body to the adjacent land. However, they can also be biological particles, such as coralline algae and mollusc shells. Repeated wave and current actions may cause the rock particles to be ground into small-size particles, which are deposited at the seacoast. Over time, the deposits accumulate into a beach. The particles that form a beach primarily rock forms, including pebbles, sand, shingle, gravel, and other sediments. The one shown in the picture is made mainly of sand. The underlying minerals primarily determine the color of the sand. The one in the film is a shade of grey and is likely to be of quartz, which is a predominant mineral along the Californian coastlines (“City of Lake Forest”). Pure quartz is transparent. However, sand resulting from quartz can assume different colors depending on the other whole-rock fragments that may be present at the seabed. 

Laguna Beach Cliff

Topic: Coastal Landforms: Depositional landforms

Chapter: Chapter 20, Coastal Processes and Terrain

Page: 654

Date: Sept 4, 2019

Location: Victoria Beach, Laguna Beach, CA

Description: A Cliff at the Seacoast and the Mysterious Pirate Tower

Analysis

The image shown above is a cliff formed at Victoria Beach, along the coast of the Pacific Ocean. The cliff was formed due to the weathering and erosion of rocks by wind and waves from the ocean. Cliffs are standard landscape features, especially on coastal lines. They describe a natural rock mass that rises high and almost vertically above the land surface. In coastal regions, strong waves and powerful winds cause rocks along the shore to weather. From the image, strong waves can be seen hitting the base of the cliff and causing turbulences near the shore.

Soft or grainy rocks are broken off hardier rocks as either sediments or alluvium (loose unconsolidated sediments or soil), as can be seen at the base of the cliff. The sediments become part of the floor and are eroded from the rock mass by waves. The harder rocks are left standing as cliffs. At the base of a cliff, bokken rock fragments collect to form screes or talus deposits. The latter usually form upward concave structures whose inclination depends on the steepest angle of descent of the mean debris size (Hess and Tasa672). For some screes or taluses, large soils and sediments can build up into a large area that allows for the growth of different forms of vegetation. The waves also push particles (such as sand) from the ocean and deposit them at the shore. As they build up, these particles form a beach (see the sand beach at the image). 

One of the outstanding landmarks of the cliff at Victoria is the 60-feet La Tour, a tower standing at its base and a house (the Norman House) at the bluff (see image). The tower and the house are human-made physical features that were built in 1926. The cone-roofed tower is made from concrete and stones at the base and was constructed as a way to the house from the beach (“Chronology of Laguna”). The cliff, tower, and the house form a prime spot for tourist’s destination and highlight the economic importance of coastal landforms.

Conclusion

The physical geography of a region has significant bearings of nearly all processes, including biological and economic activities. Orange has a unique physical landscape, which provides among the most beautiful sceneries in the U.S. Some of the county’s notable features include Laguna Beach and the cliff and unique tower at Victoria Beach. The county also has a broad range of flora and fauna, some of which are unique to the southern California region. These features serve to beautify the natural landscape of the region besides preserving the environment. In addition to native and naturalized plants, Orange also has hundreds of planted vegetation species that are either native or exotic, which contributes to the beautiful nature of the county. The country experiences relatively warmer temperatures and lower rains than the U.S. averages. However, winters (especially the three months from December to February) can experience heavy rains accompanied by storms and atmospheric rivers. Like other parts of the globe, the physical Orange’s physical landscape is threatened by the potential adverse impacts of climate change, some of which are experienced at micro-climatic levels. Much of this modification is attributed to human activities that have resulted in notable disturbances in the ecosystem. 

Works Cited

“A Brief History of Orange County.” Orange County Historical Society, Orange County Historical Society, 2019, orangecountyhistory.org/wp/?page_id=38. Accessed 6 Dec 2019.

“Arroyo Willow.”NATHISTOC,Natural History of Orange County, nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/plants/Salicaceae/Salix%20lasiolepis.htm. Accessed 6 Dec 2019.

Avolio, Meghan, Diane Pataki, Thomas Gillespie, et al. “Tree diversity in Southern California’s Urban Forest: The Interacting Roles of Social and Environmental Variables.” Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, vol. 3, no. 3, 2015, pp. 1-15.

 “California.” Quick Facts, U.S. Census Bureau, 2019, census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/CA/IPE120218. Accessed 6 Dec 2019.  

“California Precipitation.” CNAP, Department of Water Resources, 2018, water.ca.gov/hafoo/csc/docs/CA_Precipitation_2pager. Accessed 6 Dec 2019.  

“Chronology of Laguna Beach.”Laguna Beach History,Laguna Beach History,lagunabeachhistory.org/chronology. Accessed 6 Dec 2019. 

“Climate Change.”U.N. Environmental Program, UNEP, 4 Dec 2019, latimes.com/california/story/2019-12-05/more-rain-and-snow-is-on-the-way-to-southern-california. Accessed 6 Dec 2019. 

Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Willow.”Encyclopaedia Britannica, britannica.com/plant/willow. Accessed 6 Dec 2019.  

Environmental Degradation.” Global Policy Forum, Global Policy Forum, 2013, globalpolicy.org/social-and-economic-policy/the-environment/environmental-degradation.html. Accessed 6 Dec 2019.  

“Facts and Figures.” The City of Santa Ana, City of Santa Ana, 2019, santa-ana.org/library/services/facts-and-figures. Accessed 6 Dec 2019.   

Fitzpatrick, Matthew. Future Urban Climates: What will Cities Feel Like in 60 Years? University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, 2019.

Fry, Hannah. “Soggy Weather Continues in SoCal, with More Rain and Snow on the Way.”Los Angeles Times, UNEP, 2015, unenvironment.org/explore-topics/climate-change. Accessed 6 Dec 2019.  

Hess, Darrel, and Dennis Tasa. McKnight’s Physical Geography A Landscape Appreciation (11^th Ed.). Pearson Education,2013.

 “Orange County Vegetation Mapping Update Phase II: Final Vegetation Mapping Report.” CNPS, Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2015, water.ca.gov/hafoo/csc/docs/CA_Precipitation_2pager. Accessed 6 Dec 2019.